Managing Extended Sick Leave in Australia

Taking extended time off work due to illness or injury can be challenging. You might be worried about your job security, finances, or how to stay in the loop at work while you recover. Extended sick leave – whether it's a few weeks or several months – is sometimes necessary to focus on your health. The good news is that in Australia there are systems in place to support you during this time, and there are steps you can take to manage your leave effectively.

In this article, we'll take a friendly, down-to-earth look at how to manage an extended sick leave. We'll cover what extended sick leave means and its implications, your workplace rights and responsibilities, practical tips for taking care of yourself, how to keep communication open with your employer, and planning for a smooth return to work. Along the way, we'll also touch on important topics like medical certificates (for instance, how a medical certificate online Australia can be used when seeing a doctor in person is tough) and point you toward useful resources. Let's dive in!

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Understanding Extended Sick Leave (and Why It Matters)

Extended sick leave generally refers to a longer-than-usual absence from work due to health reasons. We’re not talking about a day or two off for a cold – this is about longer-term illnesses or injuries that might keep you away from your job for an extended period. It could be a continuous stretch of leave (say, recovering from surgery or undergoing cancer treatment), or it might be recurrent absences that add up over time due to a chronic condition.

In Australia, if you're a part-time or full-time employee and you get sick, you are entitled to take sick leave – it's one of your 11 basic employee rights included in the National Employment Standards (NES).​. You can take sick leave if you have an illness, injury or an unexpected emergency (this includes mental health conditions or pregnancy-related illness). Under the NES, full-time workers accrue 10 days of paid sick leave per year, and part-time workers get a pro-rata (proportional) amount. Any unused sick leave carries over into the next year. Usually, a typical bout of illness might only use a few of those days. But if you’re dealing with a serious health issue, you could easily use up all your paid sick leave and still need more time off.

So, what happens if you need to be off work longer than your sick leave covers? This is where extended sick leave comes in. It often means moving from paid leave to unpaid leave once your paid entitlements run out. Many Australians face this situation each year – for example, managing a long-term health condition significantly increases the likelihood of taking extended time off work. In other words, you're not alone if you find yourself needing a lengthy absence; it's a common challenge and there are established ways to handle it.

Taking extended sick leave can have several implications:

• Income: If you've exhausted your paid sick leave, any additional time off is usually unpaid (unless you can tap into other leave like annual leave or long service leave). This can put financial strain on you.
• Job security: You might worry, "Can I lose my job if I take too long to recover?" Australian law offers some protection here (more on that soon), but it's a real concern to consider.
• Workplace impact: Your role may be covered by coworkers or a temp while you're away. There might be projects on hold or adjustments needed at work to accommodate your absence.
• Emotional well-being: Being away from work for a long time can make you feel isolated or anxious about falling behind in your career.

The key is understanding your rights and having a plan. Extended sick leave is meant to help you recover without the added stress of work, so using it when you need it is actually a smart move for your long-term health – and even for your employer (since returning too soon could make things worse). Next, let's talk about what you and your employer should expect from each other during a long illness-related absence.

Your Workplace Rights and Responsibilities on Long-Term Sick Leave

When you're on extended sick leave, both you and your employer have certain rights and responsibilities. It's important to know these so you can ensure you're being treated fairly and that you're fulfilling your obligations on your end too.

Your right to take sick leave: If you're sick or injured and can't work, you are entitled to take sick leave. This is a basic employee right in Australia. You should notify your employer as soon as possible that you're taking sick leave and let them know roughly how long you'll be away (if you know). Sometimes you might not know how long you'll need – it's okay to say that and then keep your employer updated as things progress.

Paid vs unpaid leave: While you have sick leave accrued, your time off will be paid as normal. But if you run out of paid sick leave, you can usually take additional time off as unpaid leave. There isn't a fixed "extended sick leave" allowance in the NES beyond your paid leave, but employers often grant unpaid sick leave if you have a genuine medical need​. In fact, your employment contract or company policy might allow extra unpaid sick leave for long-term illnesses. You might also be able to use other accrued leave types – for example, annual leave or long service leave – to continue getting paid while you're off, if you choose and if your employer agrees. Always check your contract or enterprise agreement: employers can give more generous leave than the legal minimum, but they can't give you less.

Job protection: One big worry is, "Can I get fired for being on sick leave for too long?" Australian law provides protection, but with some limits. Under the Fair Work Act, an employer cannot dismiss you because you are absent due to illness in the short term, as long as you provide evidence. Specifically, if you’re away for less than 3 consecutive months (or a total of less than 3 months over the last 12 months) and you have evidence (like medical certificates) for that period, you're protected from dismissal due to your absence​. If you are using paid sick leave, you're also protected no matter how long you're away.

However, if your absence extends beyond 3 months and you've exhausted any paid sick leave, that specific protection no longer automatically applies. This means that after 3+ months of continuous absence (or 3+ months total in a year of off-and-on absences), an employer could legally consider ending your employment if you have no paid leave left and you still can’t perform your job. But – and this is important – they must still handle it fairly and lawfully. Even after that period, other protections kick in. For example, it could be unlawful to sack you because of a disability (which can include a long-term illness) under anti-discrimination laws. State and territory workers’ compensation laws (if your injury or illness is work-related) may also protect your position. And any dismissal can be challenged as unfair if it's harsh or unreasonable. In short, employers should be very cautious about terminating someone who’s on extended sick leave, and most will try to work with you before it ever gets to that point.

Notice and medical evidence: As an employee, you have a responsibility to keep your employer informed and provide proof of your illness when required. Let your boss or HR know you're sick as soon as you can – this might even be after you've already left work or missed a day, which is okay. While a quick phone call or email is fine for the initial notification, you'll typically need to provide a medical certificate if you take more than a couple of days off in a row. In fact, your employer has the right to ask for evidence for as little as one day off if they choose. This evidence usually means a medical certificate from a doctor or a statutory declaration (a written, sworn statement) confirming you're unfit for work. For extended leave, expect to provide medical certificates covering your time away – for example, a certificate might say you need two weeks off, and if you end up needing more, you'll give another certificate to cover the next period, and so on. If you don't give your employer reasonable evidence when they ask, you might not be entitled to be paid for your sick leave, so it's in your best interest to get that paperwork in.

Privacy of your medical information: A common concern is how much you need to tell your employer about your illness. The short answer is: not more than you're comfortable with. You do not have to divulge all the details of your medical condition to your employer if you don't want to. Typically, a medical certificate simply states that you're unfit for work (and maybe broadly that it's due to illness or injury) and the dates you should be off – it doesn't need to list the specific diagnosis. It's perfectly fine to keep details private. Your employer should respect your privacy and keep any information you do share confidential. They are not allowed to share your health information with others without your consent. So if you're worried about office gossip, know that your medical info is on a need-to-know basis. You might choose to tell your colleagues something like "I'm taking some time off for health reasons" without specifics, and that's entirely up to you.

Employer responsibilities: On the flip side, what should your employer be doing? Firstly, they should allow you to take your entitled sick leave. They shouldn’t pressure you to work if you're clearly unwell and have followed the correct process. They also must treat you fairly – no disadvantaging you because of your illness. In fact, treating an employee less favorably due to a health condition could be a form of unlawful discrimination. Employers are generally expected to make "reasonable adjustments" for employees who have illnesses or disabilities. This means if you're able to work some but not all of your normal duties (or hours), they should see if changes can be made to help you continue working or to support your return. For example, an employer might temporarily modify your workload, provide flexible hours, or even allow work from home if that's feasible. We’ll talk more about planning a return to work with adjustments later. Importantly, your employer should also keep your job open for you (at least for that protected period of 3 months, and hopefully longer if there's progress toward you coming back). They might hire a temp or redistribute duties in the meantime, but it should be understood that it's your position to return to once you're well.

Knowing these rights and responsibilities helps set the stage. You know what you're entitled to, what you need to do, and that there are legal safety nets in place. Next, let's get into the practical side: managing your health and the necessary paperwork during a long leave.

Keeping on Top of Medical Certificates and Paperwork

Managing an extended sick leave isn't just about feeling unwell and staying in bed; there's also a bit of paperwork involved. Staying organized with documentation will make your life (and your employer’s life) much easier, and it can ensure you get all your entitlements.

Get the right medical certificates: As mentioned, you'll likely need a medical certificate covering your absence. When you visit your doctor, explain that you need a certificate for work stating that you are unfit for duties and how long you’ll be off (or when you'll be reviewed next). Doctors in Australia are very used to writing these – it's a normal part of managing sick leave. If you're seeing specialists or being hospitalized, those doctors can also provide certificates or reports. Make sure the certificate has the basic info: date, that you were examined, the doctor’s details, and how long you're advised to be off work.

Frequency of certificates: For extended absences, you might not get one certificate to cover the entire period all at once. Often, it's managed in chunks – for instance, your GP might certify you for the next three weeks and then want a follow-up to reassess you. After a review, they might extend your leave further. This approach is actually helpful because it gives both you and your employer an updated idea of your condition as time goes on. Always send your medical certificates to your employer (usually to your manager or HR) as soon as you can, so they have them on record.

Medical certificates online: These days, you might not even have to go into the clinic for a certificate if you're too sick to travel. It’s possible to obtain a medical certificate online in Australia. Online medical certificates are legally recognised in Australia as long as they're issued by a registered doctor or other qualified practitioner. In practice, that means an online certificate from a legitimate service (with a real consultation) is as good as one from a clinic. Just make sure any certificate you submit – online or paper – has all the required details and would convince a reasonable person that you genuinely needed the time off. In short, it should be credible medical evidence of your illness.

Keep personal records: It's a good idea to maintain your own folder (physical or digital) of all your documentation – medical certificates, any forms you submitted, emails about your leave, etc. This helps you keep track of dates and also serves as a backup in case anything gets lost. It can be surprisingly easy to forget exactly when you started your leave or how many certificates you've provided if you're off for months, so staying organized will help.

Know your company's process: Check your employee handbook or ask HR about your company's preferred process for sick leave documentation. Some workplaces have specific forms or an online system for submitting leave. Others might require you to email your medical certificates to a particular person or upload them somewhere. Follow the proper channels so nothing slips through the cracks. If you're unsure, just ask – it shows you're being proactive and responsible.

One thing to avoid is going silent without updating your employer. If your certificate covers up to a certain date and you realize you won't be back by then, be proactive: go back to your doctor for an extension and inform your employer as soon as possible. Regular, clear paperwork not only keeps you in the right, it also signals to your employer that you're managing your absence responsibly.

Taking Care of Your Health and Well-being During Extended Leave

Being away from work due to illness means your top priority should be your health. It sounds obvious, but it's easy to let worries about work or other stressors distract from recovery. Here are some tips to help you look after yourself during your extended sick leave (remember, this time is for you to get better):

• Stick to your treatment plan. Follow your healthcare providers’ advice closely. Take your medications on schedule, attend all your medical appointments, and do any recommended rehab or exercises. Recovery can feel like a full-time job on its own, and it's important to give it the attention it needs.
• Maintain a healthy lifestyle. As much as you can, keep up good habits. We know from research that things like eating well, doing a bit of physical activity (as you're able), and getting quality sleep can help you feel as good as possible while living with a chronic condition. You might not have the energy you normally do, but small things – even a short walk in the fresh air, or some gentle stretching at home, or choosing nourishing foods – can boost your recovery and mood. And on the flip side, don’t beat yourself up on days you just need to rest; rest is healing too.
• Take care of your mental health. An extended illness can be tough emotionally. It's normal to feel down, frustrated, or anxious at times. Do things that help you relax and stay positive: maybe it's reading, watching your favorite shows, meditation, or a hobby you enjoy. Stay mentally engaged in ways that aren't too taxing – for example, if you're up for it, you could do puzzles, listen to podcasts, or anything that keeps your mind active. If you find yourself struggling emotionally (constant sadness, worry, or feelings of isolation), consider talking to a counsellor or psychologist. Many therapists can even speak with you via phone or video call if you can't go in person. You can also call support lines like Lifeline or Beyond Blue for free counseling and advice. Don't hesitate to reach out – mental health is as important as physical health.
• Stay connected with loved ones. It can be isolating being home sick while everyone else is at work or going about life. Make an effort to keep in touch with friends and family. A simple phone call or a visitor for a cup of tea can brighten your day and help you feel supported. In fact, social support can really help maintain your quality of life when you're unwell. Let people help you out – whether it's cooking a meal, driving you to an appointment, or just providing companionship. If you have a more long-term condition, you might even find benefit in joining a support group (there are groups for all sorts of illnesses and situations). Connecting with others who "get it" can make you feel less alone, and they might share useful coping tips.
• Keep a routine (but make it gentle). When you're not going to work every day, it's easy for days and nights to blend together. Creating a bit of routine can give you a sense of normalcy. It could be as simple as waking up and going to bed at regular times, or having a daily walk at a certain time, or a small task each day (like watering the plants or writing in a journal). A routine can prevent boredom and give structure to your recovery period. Just keep it flexible and don't over-schedule yourself – your energy and symptoms might vary day to day.
• Set small goals and celebrate progress. Recovery can be slow, and that can be frustrating. Try setting tiny goals: maybe this week you want to be able to walk to the mailbox and back, or finish a book you started, or do a 5-minute breathing exercise each day. Little achievements can boost your confidence and show you that you're making progress, even if it's not as fast as you'd like.
• Stay in the loop (if you want to). Some people feel better knowing what's happening at work while they're away, while others prefer to disconnect completely until they're ready to return. If it eases your mind, ask a work friend to keep you updated on any big news at the office, or maybe check your email once a week just for any important updates. We’ll talk more about communication next, but from a well-being perspective, it's about what makes you feel less stressed. If work news makes you anxious, it's perfectly okay to take a complete mental break from it.
• Avoid guilt. You might feel guilty about being away from your job or worry about colleagues picking up your slack. Remind yourself that taking the time to get well is not only the best thing for you, but in the long run it's better for your workplace too. Pushing yourself to go back before you're ready could lead to worse health or another absence later. Your coworkers and managers likely understand this – everyone gets sick sometimes. Give yourself permission to focus on recovery without feeling bad about it.

Above all, remember that extended sick leave is about getting you back to full health. Taking care of yourself is your main "job" during this period. Being kind to yourself mentally and physically will help you heal faster. Recovery often isn't linear – there are good days and bad days – so celebrate the good and be gentle on the bad.

Communicating with Your Employer While on Leave

Maintaining some communication with your employer during your extended sick leave can make a big difference. It helps manage expectations on both sides and keeps you connected to your workplace (so it’s not a total mystery what you’ll be coming back to). The key is finding the right balance – you don't need to be in daily contact (you're on leave, after all!), but you also don't want to disappear for months with no updates. Here are some tips for keeping the lines open in a low-stress way:

• Set up a communication plan early. Once it’s clear you’ll be away for an extended time, have a conversation (or email exchange) with your manager or HR about how you'll keep in touch. This might include how often you'll update them and via what method. For example, you might agree to send a brief update email every two weeks, or have a phone call once a month, just to share how you're going and any new info on your expected return. Setting this expectation means you won’t feel nagged, and they won’t feel left in the dark.
• Provide updates on your condition (within your comfort zone). You don’t have to give all the gory medical details, but it’s helpful to let your employer know generally how you're doing. Something like, "I'm still under my doctor's care and focusing on recovery. The latest plan is to re-evaluate my ability to return to work in six weeks," is enough. If your expected return date changes – maybe your doctor initially thought six weeks, but now it's looking more like ten – inform your employer as soon as that becomes clear. Employers appreciate knowing what to expect so they can manage workflow or temporary staff accordingly.
• Be honest and clear about what you know (and what you don't). It's okay if you don't have a definite return date. Many times, recovery is open-ended. It's better to say "I hope to be back by July, but I'll have to see how the next few weeks go" than to over-promise. Uncertainty is part of the process, and a good employer will understand that. Just avoid radio silence; if you said you'd update in a month, even if nothing has changed, drop a quick note saying "Hi, just letting you know I'm still recovering, not ready to return yet. I'll send another update in a few weeks."
• Keep communications professional and positive. While you might be friends with your boss or close to your team, remember to keep work communications professional. That doesn't mean cold or overly formal – you can absolutely be friendly and express gratitude for their support – but maintain a respectful tone. For example, if you’re emailing, you might write, "Thank you for checking in on me. I'm doing a bit better but not quite there yet. I really appreciate you and the team covering my duties during this time." Being positive (when you can) also signals that you are engaged and thinking about getting back when possible, which can reassure your employer.
• Discuss boundaries if needed. Sometimes workplaces might overdo it and constantly check in or try to get you to do work while you're on leave. If that happens and it's too much, it's okay to set some boundaries. You could politely say, "I'll do my best to respond to any urgent questions, but I won’t be able to actively work on projects until I’m medically cleared to return." Remember, sick leave is meant for you to recuperate, not to be working from home. On the flip side, if you want to stay involved in some minor ways (maybe you have a bit of FOMO or just like to stay busy), make sure to clarify that with your employer and get your doctor's okay. Some people, for instance, might dial in to a monthly team meeting just to stay connected, which can be fine as long as it's not pressuring you or hindering your recovery.
• Stay connected socially. Work isn’t just work – often it's a community. If you feel up to it, staying in touch with a few work friends can be nice. You might have a colleague you’re close with drop by for a coffee, or you might text with teammates occasionally. This isn't "official" communication, but it helps you not feel too isolated from your workplace. Plus, friends can keep you in the loop about any happenings (like "we won that big client!" or "the boss is moving to another city") which can be nice to know. Let your manager and colleagues know if you're okay with people reaching out to you, or if you'd prefer privacy while you heal​. People sometimes hesitate to bother you, not knowing if you're up for chatting, so giving a cue can help. For example, in one of your update emails you could say, "I miss you guys! I'd love to hear from the team, even though I can't be there in person," or conversely, "I appreciate everyone respecting my privacy during this time so I can focus on my health."
• Document important agreements. If you and your employer agree on anything specific – like a planned return date, or lighter duties when you first come back – it's good to have that in writing (even if just an email recap). This avoids any confusion later. For instance, if your manager says, "Take the time you need; we’ll aim to have you back by June 1st," you might follow up with an email: "Thanks for understanding. Just confirming that we're tentatively planning on a June 1st return, pending my doctor's clearance. I'll keep you updated if anything changes."
• Know your support contacts. Find out if your workplace has an Employee Assistance Program (EAP) or any support services for employees on leave. EAPs often offer free counseling, which could help you cope with stress or anxiety during your time off. Also, identify who your main point of contact at work is for any questions or updates – it might be your direct manager or someone from HR. Having a go-to person makes communication easier and less scattered.

By keeping communication open and clear, you're showing your employer that you're responsible and that you care about your job, even though you can't be there right now. Most employers will appreciate that. It also sets the stage for a smoother transition when you're ready to return because you'll both be on the same page.

Planning for Your Return to Work

When the day finally comes that you’re ready (or cleared by your doctor) to return to work, it's often both exciting and a bit nerve-wracking. You might worry about catching up or how you'll readjust to the work routine. Planning ahead can alleviate a lot of these concerns. Here's how to approach your return after an extended sick leave:

• Get a medical clearance (if needed). Depending on your illness and your workplace, you may need a note from your doctor stating that you're fit to return to work – especially if there were any safety concerns. For example, if you had a physical injury, your employer will want to know if there are any limitations (like "avoid lifting over 5kg" or "needs regular breaks to stretch"). Your doctor can provide a fitness for work letter or simply indicate on your final medical certificate that you are cleared to resume work on a certain date. Make sure to discuss any concerns with your doctor – if you feel you can only come back part-time at first, ask if they can recommend a graduated return.
• Give your employer a heads-up. As soon as you have a target return date, inform your employer. They’ll need some time to prepare for your comeback – whether that’s ending any temp contracts covering your role, adding you back to the roster, or planning projects knowing you'll be available. If you’ve been in regular communication, this won’t come as a surprise; they'll likely have a rough idea. Still, confirming the date (e.g., "I'm happy to report I'll be returning to work on Monday the 5th") is important. Try to do this with at least a week or two of notice if possible.
• Discuss a return-to-work plan. Especially after a long absence, it's beneficial to have a plan in place with your employer. This can be a formal meeting or just an email discussion on how your return will work. Topics to cover include:
  • Hours and duties: Will you come back full-time immediately, or do you need to ease in? Some people do reduced hours or a mix of in-office and work-from-home days initially. Under the law, employers are generally required to offer "reasonable adjustments" for health conditions, which might include flexible hours or modified duties for a while. Don’t hesitate to ask if you need that. For instance, if you're still going to physical therapy twice a week, maybe you can arrange to start your workday a bit later on those days.
  • Role changes or updates: While you were away, did something change at work? Maybe there’s a new software system, or your project was reassigned, or the team structure is different. Ask for an update on any changes that affect your job. Your manager might set up a reorientation for you, or a colleague could brief you on what you missed.
  • Support and accommodations: If you’ll continue to have any limitations (say you can’t travel for work for a while, or you need an ergonomic chair due to your back, etc.), discuss these with your employer. They should accommodate reasonable requests to help you do your job effectively despite any ongoing health issues. For example, if you had a back injury and now need a sit-stand desk or more frequent breaks, that’s a reasonable adjustment to ask for. If your illness is considered a disability under the law (and many chronic illnesses are), your employer must provide reasonable adjustments in most cases. There's even government support through the Employment Assistance Fund (via JobAccess) to help employers cover the cost of adjustments, so you shouldn't feel like you're burdening them with these requests.
  • Check-in after return: It can be helpful to plan a catch-up meeting a couple of weeks after you’re back, to see how you’re coping and if any tweaks are needed. Let your employer know you’re open to discussing how it's going and making adjustments if necessary.
• Consider a gradual re-entry (if appropriate). Not everyone will need a phased return, but if you've been off for a very long time or had a severe illness, consider whether jumping straight into 40 hours a week is wise. You might propose working half-days for the first week, or starting mid-week so your first week back is shorter. Some companies have formal return-to-work programs (particularly if your absence was due to a workplace injury and involved workers' comp). Even if it’s not formal, you and your boss can agree on a trial period of lighter workload or shorter hours just to get your feet wet.
• Catch up with colleagues. In your first days back, schedule some time to simply reconnect with people. It could be as simple as a coffee chat with a work friend or a quick team lunch to welcome you back. This social reintegration is important – it helps you feel part of the team again and not like "the outsider who was gone forever." Plus, colleagues can fill you in on any office news, which informally gets you up to speed on things you missed.
• Stay patient and positive. Understand that it might take a little time to get back into the swing of things. You might feel a bit out of the loop or notice your stamina isn’t what it used to be. That's okay. Take it one day at a time and acknowledge every bit of progress. Chances are your colleagues and managers will be understanding if you're a bit rusty on day one or need to take things slowly at first – they've likely dealt with similar situations before.
• Continue self-care practices. Just because you’re back at work doesn’t mean you should drop all the good habits you had while recovering. In fact, you’ll want to maintain them to avoid any setbacks. Keep eating well, get enough sleep, and go to any follow-up medical appointments. If you have ongoing treatment (like regular check-ups, therapy sessions, or rehab exercises), make sure to fit those in. Perhaps schedule recurring medical appointments outside of peak work hours or discuss with your manager how to accommodate them. Your health still comes first.
• Know your rights on return. When you return, you should generally go back to your same role or an equivalent role, unless something else has been mutually agreed upon. Your employer shouldn’t punish or demote you for taking sick leave – that could be considered adverse action or discrimination. If you feel you’re being treated unfairly (for example, if you’re being excluded or pressured because you were on leave), keep notes and consider getting advice from your union or the Fair Work Ombudsman. However, in most cases, employers are supportive and just want to help you reintegrate successfully.

A well-planned return sets you up to get back to work smoothly and with confidence. It's often a good idea to have a follow-up chat with your manager after a few weeks back, just to make sure everything is going well for both you and them. By taking it step by step, you’ll be back in the groove before you know it, bringing your experience and resilience gained from this challenging time.

Conclusion

Managing an extended sick leave can certainly be stressful, but with the right approach and support, you can get through it while protecting both your health and your job. Knowing your entitlements and keeping a good rapport with your employer will ease a lot of worries. Hopefully, the time off gives you the chance to recuperate fully, and when you do go back to work, you'll be ready to hit the ground running (or at least walking briskly!).

Remember: Your well-being is the top priority. Jobs and careers span decades, and a few months away to heal is a worthwhile investment in your future. Take care of yourself, use the resources available, and don't be afraid to ask for help or information at any stage. You’ve got this, and there are plenty of people and policies out there to support you on the journey back to wellness and work.

TLDR

Disclaimer

This medical blog provides general information and is not a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always consult with your regular doctor for specific medical concerns. The content is based on the knowledge available at the time of publication and may change. While we strive for accuracy, we make no warranties regarding completeness or reliability. Use the information at your own risk. Links to other websites are provided for convenience and do not imply endorsement. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily representative of any institutions.